Islamic Golden Age (8th to 14th centuries): The rise of Islam in the 7th century and the establishment of the caliphates (Umayyad, Abbasid, and later caliphates) saw a flourishing of culture, science, and commerce. Cities like Baghdad, Damascus, and Cordoba became centers of wealth and learning. The expansion of the Muslim world facilitated trade across vast regions, from the Iberian Peninsula to India.
